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Leadville Colorado, Miners' = Strike

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Silver was discovered in Leadville in the 1870s, initiating the Colorado = Silver=20 Boom. The Leadville, = Colorado miners' strike in 1896-97 occurred during, and as a = result of,=20 rapid industrialization and consolidation of the mining industry. Mine = owners=20 had become more powerful, and they resolved not only to defeat the = strike, but=20 also to crush the union. = The local=20 union lost the strike and was nearly dissolved, marking a turning point = for the=20 local union's parent organization, the Wester= n=20 Federation of Miners (WFM).

The defeat forced miners to re-assess their tactics and their union=20 philosophy.^[1]=20 Although the federation was birthed=20 as the result of a violent struggle and had engaged in a=20 militant action in the Cri= pple=20 Creek District in which miners asserted union rights and defended = themselves=20 with gunfire and dynamite, the = organization's=20 disposition and its Preamble envisioned a future of arbitration and = conciliation=20 with employers.^[2]=20 After the Leadville strike, WFM leaders and their followers adopted = radical=20 politics and were open to more militant policies, breaking with the=20 conservative, craft union = based Americ= an=20 Federation of Labor in the East.^[3]

1 History=20
- 1.1 Impact of=20 industrialization=20
- 1.2 Strike=20 issues=20
- 1.3 The = strike=20
- 1.4 The forces=20 arrayed=20
  
  1.4.1 The=20 employers=20
  1.4.2 The=20 union
- 1.5 Incident at = the=20 Coronado Mine
2 Strike=20 significance=20
3 Western = Federation of=20 Miners relationship with the American Federation of = Labor=20
4 Western = Federation of=20 Miners relationship with elected officials=20
5 Legacy of the=20 strike=20
6 See = also=20
7 Notes=20

[edit]=20 History

The union local in the Leadville= mining=20 district was the Cloud City Miners' Union (CCMU), Local 33 of the = Western=20 Federation of Miners.^[4]=20 The Leadville strike was the first real test for the Western Federation = of=20 Miners, and the first strike into which the WFM poured significant=20 resources.^[5]=20 Coming just two years after the Western Federation of Miners' victory at = Cripple=20 Creek, the Leadville strike represented a significant hope that the = mineworkers=20 could solidify their power and continue their dramatic growth.

[edit]=20 Impact of industrialization

Miners and other workers were often pulled into industrial = enterprises such=20 as underground metal mining from non-industrial traditions. Placer=20 mining was gradually replaced by lode = mining from=20 1860 to 1910, forcing miners to go deeper underground and resulting in = an=20 increasing level of industrialization. Tensions resulted from changing = demands=20 for job skills and work discipline.^[6]

By 1900, there were more than 4,000 miners in Leadville.^[7]=20 Colorado's annual mining industry death rate in the 1890s was almost six = deaths=20 per thousand workers. As a death rate quoted for miners, the statistics = were=20 believed understated because they included surface workers as well as=20 underground workers.^[8]

Prior to the 1890s, many hard rock mines were owned by the miners who = had=20 discovered them. Owners who had been miners were often more sympathetic = to the=20 concerns of miners. But the higher cost of industrialization changed = that. The=20 typical mine owners of the 1890s started out as bankers, managers, and=20 businessmen who had never entered a mine, and whose primary concern was=20 profitability.^[9]=20 Lode mining took capital, and investors from the east and west coasts, = and even=20 from Europe, were actively courted. When the Colorado Legislature passed = a law=20 in 1887 prohibiting foreign ownership of real estate in Colorado, mine = ownership=20 was excepted.^[10]

Miners had long believed that they were treated poorly. For example, = in 1894=20 a Leadville mine owner instructed the superintendent of the mine to = delay a=20 payday for the miners so that a dividend could be paid to = stockholders.[11]=20 The WFM had advocated the eight hour day = since its=20 founding convention in 1893.^[12]=20 Some miners had the shorter hours, and public employees and building = trades=20 workers in Denver had won the eight hour day as early as 1890.[13]=20 Yet in 1896, hoisting engineers in Leadville were required to work = twelve hour=20 shifts. ^[14]=20 Mines were more dangerous as they were dug deeper; it was increasingly=20 recognized that poor working conditions as well as longer hours could be = correlated with poor health.^[15]=20 In 1889 two Leadville workmen were sent to Denver to testify in favor of = a mine=20 inspection bill. Although it passed, it made no difference that year = because the=20 legislature failed to fund it.^[16]

[edit]=20 Strike issues

In 1896, representatives of the CCMU asked for a wage increase of = fifty cents=20 per day for all mine workers not already making three dollars per = day.[17]=20 The union felt justified, for fifty cents a day had been cut from the = miners'=20 wages during the depression of 1893.^[18]

Some believe it was a bad time to demand a wage hike, because the = economy=20 hadn't yet fully recovered from the downturn. One mine owner claimed "we = have=20 not made a dollar in two years."^[19]=20 But others observe that by 1895, Leadville mines posted their largest = combined=20 output since 1889, and that Leadville was then Colorado's most = productive mine=20 camp, producing almost 9.5 million ounces of silver.^[20]=20 The mine owners "were doing a lot better than they wanted anyone to = know."[21]=20 Mine owners Eben Smith and John=20 F. Campion were writing letters discussing mine expansions and = upgrading=20 operations, such that "both men seemed, in their writing at least, to = remain=20 remarkably unconcerned about their overall financial prospects." Campion = was=20 attempting to purchase Italian marble, and other luxuries for his home = during=20 the strike.^[22]

[edit]=20 The strike

Negotiations over an increase in pay for the lower-paid mineworkers = broke=20 down, and 1,200 miners voted unanimously to strike all mines that were = still=20 paying at the lower rate. The next day 968 miners walked out, and mine = owners locked out = another=20 1,332 mine workers.^[23]

Union miners began to intercept replacement workers headed for the = mines,=20 attempting to discourage them from taking the struck jobs, leading to an = increasingly tense situation. A British journalist described the = standoff:

No surrender; no compromise; no pity. The owners mean to starve the = miners=20 to death; the miners mean to blow the owners to atoms.^[24]

[edit]=20 The forces arrayed

Many miners in the West had put their faith in the Western Federation = of=20 Miners as the organization most likely to stand up to rich and powerful=20 industrialists.^[25]=20 But the employers had the upper hand, and only a "remarkably resilient = and=20 cohesive" union could withstand and defeat such a formidible array of=20 enemies.^[26]

[edit]=20 The employers

The mine owners secretly formed an agreement among themselves, later = sealed=20 with a written pact, that none of them would recognize the union or = negotiate=20 with it, and that all participants would lock out all mine workers = =E2=80=93 an=20 arrangement later revealed in a report by the Colorado State = Legislature.[27]=20 The mine owners systematically imported strike breakers in unprecedented = numbers=20 from Wisconsin and Missouri.^[28]=20 They hired detectives. They implemented not just a lockout, but also a = blacklist.=20 They sought to co-opt union activities, and when their spies discovered=20 divisions among the strikers, they exploited them. The owners exerted = local=20 political clout, and therefore benefited from the cooperation of local=20 officials, law enforcement, business, and other community leaders.[29]=20 While the local sheriff was sympathetic to the miners, the Leadville = city police=20 took the side of the mine owners. They recruited new officers from = Denver, and=20 "apparently kept up a near-constant campaign of harassment and violence = against=20 union members throughout the strike." Possibly as many as six union men = were=20 randomly killed during the strike, either by the Denver deputies, or = under=20 mysterious circumstances.^[30]

Leadville mine owner John Campion hired labor spies from = both the Thi= el=20 Detective Agency and the Pinkerton=20 Agency to spy on the union. Campion hired additional spies to report = on=20 activities of replacement workers imported from Missouri.^[31]=20 The elaborate spy network insured that mine owners had a complete and = accurate=20 description of union plans and activities, as well as the opinions and = attitudes=20 of union members.^[32]

During the strike=20 in Coeur d'Alene just four years earlier, mine owners "claimed that = they=20 accepted miners' unions and were willing to work with them".^[33]=20 In Leadville, mine owners essentially denied that unions had any right = to exist.=20 The owners refused to use the word "union". Their communications were = addressed=20 to miners, rather than to their organization.^[34]=20 When a Leadville mine owner demonstrated sympathy for union miners, = either=20 offering to pay the union-demanded wage, or merely being suspected of = doing so,=20 other mine owners used court action and threats in an effort to present = a united=20 front against the union.^[35]

[edit]=20 The union

In 1896 the Western Federation of Miners was already thought by=20 contemporaries to be radical and militant, but was in fact dedicated to=20 essentially conservative goals: decent wages paid in legal tender rather = than scrip, = health care for=20 miners, restrictions on cheap immigrant labor, the disarming of = detectives, and=20 friendly relationships with employers. They envisioned an eventual end = to=20 confrontation and strikes.^[36][37]=20 The WFM was unprepared for the determination and power that mine owners = would=20 bring to bear during struggles for union rights.^[38]

The Cloud City Miners' Union faced a difficult challenge. Their foes = were=20 wealthy and powerful,^[39]=20 with the financial ability to lockout the miners, and to close down = operations=20 while patiently awaiting the arrival of soldiers.^[40]=20 Miners were faced with a loss of credit from local businesses.[41]

The local CCMU was riddled with internal conflict. National and = ethnic=20 divisions and differences in union philosophy were exacerbated by = inadequate=20 resources. There was distrust of the union leadership, as well as = suspicion and=20 jealousy over outside federation staff who were paid a salary slightly = higher=20 than the strike allowance received by miners. CCMU leadership was = predominantly=20 Irish, and they were characterized as partial to their fellow Irish = miners at=20 the expense of Cornish miners and others. Local leaders sometimes = resorted to=20 coercion to maintain loyalty among some ethnic groups of miners.[42]

Into this divided community, the mine owners unleashed spies who were = assigned to monitor and undermine the union.^[43]=20 Spies supplied information that was processed into thousands of pages of = daily=20 reports on the internal workings of the CCMU; its divisions, its plans, = its=20 weaknesses.^[44]=20 For the most part, union members and leadership were unaware that their = ranks=20 were riddled with company agents. Spies were entrusted with union = security=20 responsibilities, even with the responsibility of detecting possible = spies.[45]=20 The spies faithfully recorded information about ethnic rivalries and=20 philosophical disputes among die-hard and disillusioned unionists, = militants and=20 pacifists, optimists and pessimists, and the spy agencies passed that=20 information on to the mine operators.^[46]=20 With comprehensive daily reports on secret union meetings and the = union's=20 tactical plans, mine owners were able to outwit, outmaneuver, and = outlast the=20 strikers.

[edit]=20 Incident at the Coronado Mine

In a general meeting of the CCMU on September 16, 1896, union leaders = "[cautioned] all of the members to be careful and keep sober and keep = out of=20 mischief."^[47]=20 The next day the union issued a resolution that stated, "any violation = of the=20 law or disturbance of the peace by any member of this union endangers = the=20 success of our cause and is, therefore, treason to the cause..."[48]

Just four days later, on September 21, 1896, the Coronado Mine, which = had=20 been operating with armed replacement workers, was the scene of = shootings and=20 dynamite explosions, resulting in the burning of surface buildings. = Strikers=20 then proceeded to the Robert Emmet Mine, and another confrontation.[49]

At least four union miners (in addition to the random killings) and = one=20 fireman were killed that day during what were commonly described as = riots.[50]=20 Colorado Governor McIntire= =20 would later argue that the violence showed evidence of premeditation. = With an=20 estimated $50,000 in damages, Governor McIntire sent the Colorado = National=20 Guard to Leadville.^[51]=20 WFM leader Ed=20 Boyce was one of twenty-seven union men jailed during the Leadville=20 strike.^[52]=20 Union leaders were charged, but charges were dismissed for lack of = evidence.[53]=20 Although the altercations at the mines apparently were not authorized by = union=20 leadership, the fallout still hurt the union. With soldiers protecting = strike=20 breakers, the strike ultimately failed.^[54]

[edit]=20 Strike significance

When it was initially formed in 1893, the WFM shared the AFL's = conservatism.=20 But its experiences going up against Mine = Owners'=20 Associations and their allies convinced the WFM that acting in a=20 non-threatening manner wasn't going to accomplish anything = worthwhile.[55]=20 Many union members had begun to reconsider their conservative = assumptions about=20 confrontation and violence. By the late 1890s, the WFM believed that it = would=20 have to go toe to toe with mine owners and other employers. The WFM even = considered creating rifle clubs for carefully chosen members.^[56]

The miners in the WFM realized that the old form of organization = could not=20 compete with "plutocracy".^[57]=20 They concluded that the interests of employers were "always = antagonizing" toward=20 the interests of the union federation.^[58]=20 The AFL ("organized labor of the east") could not help with the unique = problems=20 of the western miners.^[59]=20 The solution was organizing western laborers and western unions into a = new=20 umbrella-like federation.^[60]=20 These conclusions represented "an absolute rejection" of the AFL, of its = conservative philosophy and its complacent demeanor.^[61]

[edit]=20 Western Federation of Miners relationship with = the=20 American Federation of Labor

The WFM had joined the Americ= an=20 Federation of Labor (AFL) hoping for substantial financial support = which had=20 been promised by the larger federation.^[62]=20 The WFM also hoped that the AFL would call out some of its members to = support=20 strikes by WFM locals, if necessary.^[63]=20 During the Leadville strike, WFM President Boyce went east to ask for = help in=20 person from Samuel Gompers = of the=20 AFL, but was=20 rebuffed.^[64]=20 The AFL failed to provide financial support, and it refused to call out = any of=20 its unions in Leadville in support of the CCMU.^[65]

Boyce later found common ground with former American = Railway=20 Union (ARU) leader Eugene Debs, who = had become=20 a socialist = after a strike=20 by the ARU was crushed by government intervention.^[66]

<= /A>

[edit]=20 Western Federation of Miners relationship with = elected=20 officials

During the WFM's first=20 major strike in Cripple Creek just two years earlier, Colorado = Governor Waite, a = Populist,=20 called out the Colorado = National=20 Guard to protect strikers. This action, and the results of that = strike,=20 encouraged working class support for Populists.^[67]=20 However, the fear of union militancy, and particularly a negative = reaction to=20 the WFM's successful Cripple Creek strike, helped to sweep Populists = from=20 power.^[68]=20 Subsequently the hostility of both Democratic and Republican officials = during=20 the Leadville strike caused some workers to distrust both major = parties.[69]

In 1899, members of the CCMU formed a chapter of the Socialist = Labor=20 Party.^[70]=20 A western federation of labor called the Western Labor = Union,=20 formed by the WFM and other western unions in Salt Lake = City in=20 1898, endorsed socialist candidates, and called for the abolition of the = wage=20 system.^[71]=20 While the rank and file of the WFM did not specifically endorse = socialism, they=20 did pass resolutions which gave them a reputation for radical and = revolutionary=20 sentiments.^[72]

[edit]=20 Legacy of the strike

WFM leaders and federation members realized that they needed to build = a more=20 powerful organization. To do so, they jettisoned the "conservative and = divisive=20 self-interest" that had characterized the AFL and the western miners'=20 organizations themselves up to that point.^[73]

The Leadville strike had winnowed out miners who were antagonistic = toward, or=20 not fully supportive of the union's goals.^[74]=20 The members who were left agreed that they were engaged in a class-based = struggle that called for a more militant and confrontational = disposition.=20 Employers themselves had dictated the old rules for the struggle, but = after=20 Leadville the union no longer believed those rules applied. Many of the = WFM=20 members were moving beyond reformist sentiments, to a realization that = if they=20 were to obtain the just solution that they sought, the system needed to = be=20 overturned.^[75]=20 In a document called the November= 1897=20 proclamation, the union miners and their allies vowed to launch a = new=20 federation which would reflect their growing class=20 consciousness.^[76]

The Leadville strike set the scene not only for the WFM's = consideration of=20 militant tactics and its embrace of radicalism,^[77]=20 but also for the birth of the Western Labor = Union=20 (which became the American = Labor=20 Union), the WFM's participation in the founding of the Ind= ustrial=20 Workers of the World,^[78]=20 and for events which culminated in the Colorado Labor = Wars.

[edit]=20 See also

[edit]=20 Notes

^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 5-6.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 23,26.=20
^=20 There is a difference between union militancy and union radicalism. = Some of=20 the most conservative unions have been quite militant. Unions can be = militant=20 in their tactics to preserve or protect the status quo, whether that = be wages,=20 jobs, or rights. When a union becomes radicalized, it invests = philosophy and=20 possibly resources toward the goal of changing the system.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 2.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 48,91.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, pages 5-6.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 202.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 196.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 33-34.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, pages 17-19.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 64.=20
^=20 All That Glitters=E2=80=94Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple = Creek, Elizabeth=20 Jameson, 1998, page 177.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 204.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 204.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 205.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, pages 187-88.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 2.=20
^=20 Anthony Lukas, Big Trouble, 1997, page 211.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, page 171.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 30,105.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 105 (quoting Blair, Leadville: Colorado's Magic City, 189).=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 105.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 2.=20
^=20 Anthony Lukas, Big Trouble, 1997, page 211.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 63.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 47.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 2,31, and 97, in reference to the Report of the Joint Special=20 Legislative Committee, 693.=20
^=20 Mark Wyman, Hard Rock Epic, Western Miners and the Industrial = Revolution,=20 1860-1910, 1979, pages 53-54.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 28.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 38-39.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 7-8.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 7-10.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 31-32,105, citing Jensen, Heritage of Conflict, 30-31.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 2,31-32,105.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 32-33.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 22-23.=20
^=20 At the time, detectives were = almost=20 invariably private detectives.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 23.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 47.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 47.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 47.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 47-70.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 47.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 7-10.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 7-10.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 9.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 118.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 75.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 1-4.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 4-5.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 4-5.=20
^=20 Anthony Lukas, Big Trouble, 1997, page 211-215.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 118.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 4-5.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 81.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 75-79.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 82.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 82.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 82.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 82-83.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 83.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 81,92.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 81.=20
^=20 Anthony Lukas, Big Trouble, 1997, page 211-215.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 81.=20
^=20 Anthony Lukas, Big Trouble, 1997, page 211-215.=20
^=20 All That Glitters=E2=80=94Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple = Creek, Elizabeth=20 Jameson, 1998, page 170.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 27.=20
^=20 All That Glitters=E2=80=94Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple = Creek, Elizabeth=20 Jameson, 1998, page 170.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 84-85.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 85. Philpott refers to the Western Labor Union as the Western = Federation=20 of Labor.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 85-86.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 92.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 73.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 page 92-93.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 71,83.=20
^=20 William Philpott, The Lessons of Leadville, Colorado Historical = Society, 1995,=20 pages 6-7,75-79.=20
^=20 All That Glitters=E2=80=94Class, Conflict, and Community in Cripple = Creek, Elizabeth=20 Jameson, 1998, page 7.

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